手機(jī)版
To figure out how we pick mates, scientists have measured every shape and angle of the human face, studied the symmetry of dancers, crafted formulas from the measurements of Playboy models, and had both men and women rank attractiveness based on smelling armpit sweat.
After all this and more, the rules of attraction for the human species are still not clearly understood. How it all factors into true love is even more mysterious.
But a short list of scientific rules for the game of love is emerging. Some are as clearly defined as the prominent, feminine eyes of a supermodel or the desirable hips of a well-built man. Other rules work at the subconscious level, motivating us to action for evolutionary reasons that are tucked inside clouds of infatuation.
In the end, lasting love depends at least as much on behavior as biology. But the first moves are made before you're even born.
Symmetry equals sex
Starting at conception, the human body develops by neatly splitting cells. If every division were to go perfectly, the result would be a baby whose left and right sides are mirror images. But nature doesn't work that way. Genetic mutations and environmental pressures skew symmetry, and the results have lifelong implications.
Good symmetry shows that an individual has the genetic goods to survive development, is healthy, and is a good and fertile choice for mating.
"It makes sense to use symmetry variation in mate choice," said evolutionary biologist Randy Thornhill of the University of New Mexico. "If you choose a perfectly symmetrical partner and reproduce with them, your offspring will have a better chance of being symmetric and able to deal with perturbations."
Thornhill has been studying symmetry for 15 years and scanned faces and bodies into computers to determine symmetry ratios. Both men and women rated symmetrical members of the opposite sex as more attractive and in better health than their less symmetrical counterparts. The differences can be just a few percent-perceivable though not necessarily noticeable.
By questioning the study participants, Thornhill also found that men with higher degrees of symmetry enjoy more sexual partners than men of lower symmetry.
"Women's sex-partner numbers are dependent on things other than attractiveness," Thornhill told LiveScience. "Because of the way that the sexual system in humans works, women are choosey. They are being sexually competed for. They have to be wooed and all that."
Those hips
Body shape is of course important, too. And scientists have some numbers to prove it. Psychologist Devendra Singh of the University of Texas studied people's waist-to-hip ratio （WHR）.
Women with a WHR of 0.7-indicating a waist significantly narrower than the hips-are most desirable to men.
And an analysis of hourglass figures of Playboy models and Miss America contestants showed that the majority of these women boast a WHR of 0.7 or lower.
In general, a range of 0.67 to 1.18 in females is attractive to men, Singh concluded in a 2004 study, while a 0.8 to 1.0 WHR in men is attractive to women, although having broad shoulders is more of a turn-on.
What exactly is encoded in the hip ratio? A big fat clue to whether the person will have enough energy to care for offspring.
Where fat is deposited on the body is determined by sex hormones; testosterone in men and estrogen in women. If a woman produces the proper amount and mixture of estrogen, then her WHR will naturally fall into the desired range. The same goes for a male's testosterone.
People in the ideal hip-ratio range, regardless of weight, are less susceptible to disease such as cardiovascular disorders, cancer, and diabetes, studies have shown. Women in this range also have less difficulty conceiving.
"The idea is that beauty is conveying information about health and fertility, and we admire that," Singh said in a telephone interview.
Thornhill also points to the booming nip-'n'-tuck business-which is very much about improving a person's symmetry-as evidence that people find the quality attractive.
Another recent study revealed that symmetrical dancers are seen as more attractive.
Face it
The structure of a person's face also gives insight to fertility.
Estrogen caps bone growth in a woman's lower face and chin, making them relatively small and short, as well as the brow, allowing for her eyes to appear prominent, Thornhill explained. Men's faces are shaped by testosterone, which helps develop a larger lower face and jaw and a prominent brow.
Men and women possessing these traits are seen as attractive, Thornhill said, because they advertise reproductive health.
Sniff this
Research reported last month found women both smell and look more attractive to men at certain times of the month.
And symmetrical men smell better.
Borrowing sweaty undershirts from a variety of men, Thornhill offered the shirts to the noses of women, asking for their impressions of the scents. Hands down, the women found the scent of a symmetrical man to be more attractive and desirable, especially if the woman was menstruating.
By now you might be wondering how much of this we're consciously aware of. The rules of attraction, it turns out, seem sometimes to play out in our subconscious.
In some cases, women in Thornhill's study reported not smelling anything on a shirt, yet still said they were attracted to it.
"We think the detection of these types of scent is way outside consciousness," Thornhill said.
A 2002 study found women prefer the scent of men with genes somewhat similar to their own over the scent of nearly genetically identical or totally dissimilar men.
These subconscious scents might be related to pheromones, chemical signals produced by the body to communicate reproductive quality. The human genome contains more than 1,000 olfactory genes-compared to approximately 300 genes for photoreceptors in the eyes-so pheromones have received a lot of attention from basic research scientists as well as perfume manufacturers.
But the role of pheromones in the human realm remains controversial.
Animal attraction
Pheromones clearly act as sexual attractants in the animal world. Older male elephants, for example, exude sexual prowess with a mix of chemicals the younger bulls can't muster.
Milos Novotny of the Institute of Pheromone Research at Indiana University has shown that special molecules produced by male mice can simultaneously attract females and repel, and even anger, rival males. Other studies have found similar responses throughout the animal kingdom.
Yet many researchers are not sold on the idea that these odorless compounds play a role in human attraction. Count evolutionary biologist Jianzhi Zhang of the University of Michigan among the skeptical.
In 2003, Zhang showed that a gene mutated 23 million years ago among primates in Africa and Asia that are considered to be human ancestors, allowing them to see color. This let the males notice that a female's bottom turned bright red when she was ready to mate.
"With the development of a sexual color scheme, you don't need the pheromone sensitivity to sense whether a female monkey is ready to mate," Zhang said. "It's advantageous to use visual cues rather than pheromones because they can be seen from a distance."
A study last year, however, suggested that human pheromones affect the sexual area of the brains of women and gay men in a similar manner.
Sex goes visual
Pheromones, like other scents, hitch a ride through the air on other particles, such as water droplets. They generally hover just 10 inches off the ground, however. So odds are slim they'll waft up to a human nose and fuel sudden passion at a nightclub.
Watch any construction worker whistling at a passing woman from half a block away, and you can see how visual cues can be more powerful.
And while they enter the nose like other scents, that's where the comparison stops. A pheromone's destination is a special organ called the volmeronasal organ, which humans now lack. From here the sexy scent travels along a neural pathway to the brain separate from other scents.
Evolution played a role in this, too.
After our ancestors began to see color, a gene important in the pheromone-signaling pathway suffered a deleterious mutation, making it impossible for the scent signals to reach the brain, Zhang said. Imagine a train, leaving from Los Angeles to New York, discovers that the tracks in St. Louis are destroyed.
Although the classical pheromone pathway in both Old World primates and humans is dysfunctional, the mechanism for producing pheromones still works. Some scientists believe human pheromones might be influencing our decisions along the normal olfactory pathway.
Lasting relationships
The rules of attraction might drive our initial decisions, for better or worse. But lasting relationships are about much more than what we see and smell.
Behavior plays a key role, with biology an intriguing contributing factor.
One of the oldest theories about attraction is that like begets like. It explains that eerie perception that married couples sometimes look awfully similar.
Last year, J. Philippe Rushton, a psychologist at the University of Western Ontario, looked into the relationships of people's genes. Based on a set of heritable personality traits, having similar genetics plays 34 percent of the role in friendship and mate selection, he found.
"The main theory is that some genes work well in combination with each other," Rushton told LiveScience. "If these genes evolved to work in combination, then you don't want to break that up too much for your offspring. Finding a mate with similar genes will help you ensure this."
If your spouse is genetically similar, you're more likely to have a happy marriage, for example. Child abuse rates are lower when similarity is high, and you'll also be more altruistic and willing to sacrifice more for someone who is more genetically like you, research shows.
It probably comes as little surprise people are drawn to individuals with similar attitudes and values, as psychologist Eva Klohnen at the University of Iowa found in a 2005 study of newlywed couples. These characteristics are highly visible and accessible to others and can play a role in initial attraction.
When it comes to sticking together for the long haul, researchers have shown that likeness of personality, which can take more time to realize, means more.
Comedy can also help a relationship. But the importance of humor is different for men and women, says Eric Bressler of McMaster University.
A woman is attracted to a man who makes her laugh, Bressler found in a 2005 study. A man likes a woman who laughs at his jokes.
True love
Somewhere amid attraction and sex, we all hope, are strong feelings of love. But which of all the motivations really drives us?
Interestingly, brain scans in people who'd recently fallen in love reveal more activity related to love than sex. "Romantic love is one of the most powerful of all human experiences," says Helen Fisher, an anthropologist at Rutgers University. "It is definitely more powerful than the sex drive."
The rules of attraction make up a pretty long list. No scientist knows the order of the list. But near the top is perhaps one of the toughest characteristics to gauge in advance in the search for the perfect partner.
Despite all their differences, men and women place high value on one trait: fidelity.
Cornell University's Stephen Emlen and colleagues asked nearly 1,000 people age 18 to 24 to rank several attributes, including physical attractiveness, health, social status, ambition, and faithfulness, on a desirability scale.
People who rated themselves favorably as long-term partners were more particular about the attributes of potential mates. After fidelity, the most important attributes were physical appearance, family commitment, and wealth and status.
"Good parenting, devotion, and sexual fidelity-that's what people say they're looking for in a long-term relationship," Emlen says.
要知道我們?cè)趺磥?lái)挑伴侶，科學(xué)家們測(cè)量了人臉的所有形狀、每個(gè)角度，研究舞者的對(duì)稱性、從花花公子的模特身上建立標(biāo)準(zhǔn)身材的模型，甚至通過(guò)讓人聞腋下的汗液來(lái)判斷一個(gè)人吸引力。
在進(jìn)行了所有這些、以及更多的實(shí)驗(yàn)之后，關(guān)于人類之間的吸引法則還是沒(méi)有完全弄清楚。而這些因素是如何變?yōu)?quot;真愛(ài)"就更是個(gè)謎題了。
不過(guò)還是有些科學(xué)的規(guī)律被總結(jié)了出來(lái)。有些界定得很明確，比如超級(jí)模特那種突出的、女人味十足的眼睛或者體格健壯的男性的翹屁股。有另外一些規(guī)律則而是一種潛意識(shí)的影響，在意亂情迷的表象之下隱藏的進(jìn)化的原因、驅(qū)使我們采取行動(dòng)。
最后，雖然行為至少與生理因素對(duì)于持久的愛(ài)情同樣重要。但是最初的幾步在你出生之前就已經(jīng)開(kāi)始了。
對(duì)稱=性感
從受精那一刻開(kāi)始，人的身體就是通過(guò)規(guī)則的細(xì)胞發(fā)展起來(lái)的。如果每次的都非常完美，那結(jié)果將是一個(gè)人身體的左邊和右邊就是彼此的鏡像。不過(guò)自然并不是這么運(yùn)作的�；蛲蛔兒铜h(huán)境壓力破壞了這種對(duì)稱性，而結(jié)果將有終生的影響。
很好的對(duì)稱性說(shuō)明這個(gè)人有良好的基因來(lái)支持他的生存發(fā)展，說(shuō)明健康，同時(shí)也說(shuō)明是一個(gè)能生養(yǎng)的好配偶。
"用對(duì)稱性這個(gè)因素來(lái)選擇伴侶很有道理。"新墨西哥大學(xué)的進(jìn)化生物學(xué)家Randy Thornhill說(shuō)，"如果你選了一個(gè)完美對(duì)稱的伴侶，并跟他生了孩子，你的后代對(duì)稱性也會(huì)不錯(cuò)，并能夠更好的對(duì)付發(fā)育過(guò)程中的各種干擾。"
Thornhill研究對(duì)稱性已經(jīng)超過(guò)15年了，他將面孔和身體掃描進(jìn)電腦來(lái)計(jì)算對(duì)稱比例。不論男性還是女性，他們認(rèn)為，比起那些不那么對(duì)稱的異性，那些對(duì)稱的異性更吸引人、更健康。左右差異并不大，可能只有百分之幾--可以分辨，但并不明顯。
通過(guò)詢問(wèn)實(shí)驗(yàn)被試，Thornhill還發(fā)現(xiàn)那些更對(duì)稱的男人擁有更多的性伴侶。
"女性性伴侶的數(shù)量取決于除了吸引力之外的一些東西。"Thornhill說(shuō)，"因?yàn)槿梭w的生育機(jī)制，女性更為挑剔。她們是性競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的裁判，你必須讓她們驚艷才成。"
臀腰比例
體型當(dāng)然也很重要�？茖W(xué)家們已經(jīng)用一些數(shù)字證實(shí)了這點(diǎn)。德克薩斯大學(xué)的心理學(xué)家Devendra Singh研究的就是腰-臀比例（WHR）.
WHR為0.7的女性，也就是腰明顯比臀細(xì)的女性最受男性歡迎。
另一項(xiàng)對(duì)花花公子模特和美國(guó)小姐參賽者們沙漏般的身材進(jìn)行的分析現(xiàn)實(shí)，她們中大多數(shù)人的WHR都是0.7或者更低。
Singlh在2004年的研究中總結(jié)，一般來(lái)說(shuō)，那些0.67到1.18之間的女性對(duì)男性有吸引力。而對(duì)女性來(lái)說(shuō)WHR在0.8-1的男性對(duì)女性有吸引力，雖然寬闊的肩膀更讓女人心動(dòng)。
在腰臀比例中蘊(yùn)含著什么信息呢？他可是能告訴我們一個(gè)人有沒(méi)有足夠的氣力去養(yǎng)育后代。
脂肪在身體何處堆積取決于性荷爾蒙，男性的雄性激素和女性的雌性激素。如果女人體內(nèi)的荷爾蒙的成分與含量適當(dāng)，那么她的WHR很自然就會(huì)在理想的區(qū)間內(nèi)。男性也是如此。
研究表明，那些在理想腰-臀比之內(nèi)的人，不論體重如何，罹患諸如心血管疾病、癌癥、糖尿病等疾病的可能性較低。在這個(gè)區(qū)間內(nèi)的女性受孕也較容易。
Thornhill還指出，正在蓬勃發(fā)展的nip-'n'-tuck 服務(wù)--主要是幫助人們提高對(duì)稱性，正說(shuō)明了人們覺(jué)得這個(gè)特征吸引人。
另一項(xiàng)研究則發(fā)現(xiàn)，對(duì)稱的舞者看上去更有吸引力。
看得到
臉的結(jié)構(gòu)也可以提供生育能力的一些信號(hào)。
雌性激素會(huì)抑制女性臉部下方和臉頰的骨骼生長(zhǎng)，使得這兩個(gè)部位相對(duì)較小、較短，額頭部位也是如此，讓她的眼睛更深邃。而男性的面孔則受到雄性激素的作用，幫助臉部下方和下巴的骨骼發(fā)育，并長(zhǎng)出更突出的額頭。
有這樣特征的男女看起來(lái)更吸引人，Thornhill說(shuō)，因?yàn)樗麄冃嬷辰】怠?/p>
聞得到
最近的研究指出，女性在一個(gè)月中的特定時(shí)間聞起來(lái)、看起來(lái)更吸引人。
對(duì)稱的男人圍起來(lái)更好。
Thornhill收集了很多男人汗淋淋的襯衫，并讓女人用嗅覺(jué)感覺(jué)判斷對(duì)哪個(gè)男人印象更深。和前面的一樣，那些對(duì)稱男性的期為聞起來(lái)更有吸引力、更誘人。尤其如果女人正處于月經(jīng)期。
你現(xiàn)在可能會(huì)想，我們能夠意識(shí)到的有多少。吸引力的法則往往只在我們的下意識(shí)中起作用。
在Thornhill 的研究中，女人都說(shuō)并不能聞出t-shirt上有什么期為，不過(guò)他們還是說(shuō)被這些吸引。
"我們覺(jué)得意識(shí)到這些氣味的區(qū)別，可能在我們的意識(shí)之外。"Thornhill說(shuō)。
一項(xiàng)2002年的研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，比起基因相差甚遠(yuǎn)或者完全相同的男性，女性對(duì)那些基因和自己相似的男性的氣味更感興趣。
這些潛意識(shí)的的嗅覺(jué)可能與信息素有關(guān)，這是一種身體產(chǎn)生的化學(xué)物質(zhì)，作用是溝通生育質(zhì)量。人類的基因組上攜帶了超過(guò)1000個(gè)嗅覺(jué)基因，而人眼的視覺(jué)接收器的相關(guān)基因只有不到300個(gè)，因此不論從事基礎(chǔ)研究的科學(xué)家還是香水的制造商，都對(duì)信息素有極大的關(guān)注。
不過(guò)信息素在人體的作用還存在爭(zhēng)議。
動(dòng)物間的吸引
信息素在動(dòng)物世界里是種致命吸引物。比如，年長(zhǎng)的公象就會(huì)分泌一種混合了多種化學(xué)物質(zhì)的汗液，這是年輕的公象可望不可即的。
印第安那大學(xué)信息素研究所的Milos Novotny發(fā)現(xiàn)，雄性老鼠分泌的一種特殊的物質(zhì)可以馬上吸引雌性，同事?lián)敉�、甚至激怒其他的雄性。其他的研究也發(fā)現(xiàn)，在整個(gè)動(dòng)物界中都存在這類似的現(xiàn)象。
不過(guò)，很多研究對(duì)于這種沒(méi)有氣味的物質(zhì)在人類吸引力中的作用并不買賬。其中密歇根大學(xué)的遺傳生物學(xué)家Jianzhi Zhang就是持懷疑態(tài)度的人之一。
2003年，zhang發(fā)現(xiàn)，在2千3百萬(wàn)年前生活非洲和亞洲的靈長(zhǎng)類人類祖先們，他們身上有一種基因，這讓他們可以看到顏色。這讓雄性可以注意到雌性的屁股變紅，這是他們準(zhǔn)備好交配的信號(hào)。
"隨著性色彩系統(tǒng)的發(fā)育，他們不需要特別對(duì)信息素敏感才可以注意到雌性是非準(zhǔn)備好交配。"Zhang說(shuō)，"用視覺(jué)比信息素的優(yōu)勢(shì)在于，從很遠(yuǎn)的地方就可以看到。"
不過(guò)，在2005年的一項(xiàng)研究發(fā)現(xiàn)人類信息素對(duì)于女性和同性戀男性大腦區(qū)域的作用十分相似。
視覺(jué)吸引
信息素就和其他味道一樣，需要通過(guò)通過(guò)空氣中的其他微粒進(jìn)行傳播，比如水蒸氣。不過(guò)它們只在距地面10英寸左右的地方存在。所以但夜總會(huì)里，這些氣味能夠進(jìn)入鼻子里、并馬上點(diǎn)著激情的機(jī)會(huì)并不大。
相反的，如果你見(jiàn)過(guò)建筑工人們?cè)谂藦睦线h(yuǎn)走過(guò)來(lái)就大吹口哨的話，你就明白視覺(jué)的信息是多么強(qiáng)大。
另外，當(dāng)信息素和其他氣味一樣進(jìn)入我們的鼻子，比較就停止了。信息素的最終接收器是一種叫做梨鼻骨的特殊器官，而這種器官是現(xiàn)代人類所缺乏的。從那里，這些性信息素會(huì)與其他氣味分別隨著神經(jīng)傳導(dǎo)到大腦中。
在這個(gè)過(guò)程中，進(jìn)化選擇也起到了一定作用。
在我們的祖先能看到顏色之后，一種在信息素分辨中起到重要基因收到了不良的突變，使得氣味信號(hào)不能進(jìn)入大腦。我們來(lái)想象一列火車，要從洛杉磯出發(fā)去紐約，但鐵路在圣路易斯就被破壞了。
雖然在古代靈長(zhǎng)類和人類身上，這種典型的信息素途徑失去了作用，制造信息素的功能還繼續(xù)存在。有些科學(xué)家相信人類的信息素會(huì)通過(guò)正常的氣味傳導(dǎo)而影響我們的決定。
長(zhǎng)久的關(guān)系
人與人之間的吸引規(guī)律可能最促使我們做出最初的決定，不論決定是好還是壞。但是維持一段關(guān)系就遠(yuǎn)不是光看或者聞聞就夠了。
行為起到了重要的作用，這其中生理原因發(fā)生了復(fù)雜的影響。
有一條很古老的吸引規(guī)律是，已婚的夫妻看起來(lái)出去的相似。在2005年，西安大略州大學(xué)的心理學(xué)家Philippe Rushtopn研究了人類基因之間的關(guān)系，根據(jù)一系列有遺傳性的人格特征，他發(fā)現(xiàn)，擁有相似的基因在朋友關(guān)系或選擇配偶中起到了34%的作用。
"主要的觀點(diǎn)是有些基因，當(dāng)結(jié)合在一起的時(shí)候?qū)l(fā)揮更好的作用。"Rushton說(shuō)，"如果這些基因在一起工作是進(jìn)化的結(jié)果，那為了后代著想，你最好不要拆開(kāi)他們。找到一個(gè)和你基因相似的伴侶能幫你確保這一點(diǎn)。"
如果你和伴侶基因相似，你的婚姻可能會(huì)更幸福。研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，如果相似度高，虐待子女的比例就比較低，而且你也會(huì)更愿意幫助那些和你基因相似的人、為他們奉獻(xiàn)自己。
說(shuō)到我們會(huì)被態(tài)度和價(jià)值觀相似的人吸引，人們可能不會(huì)吃驚，而這正式愛(ài)荷華大學(xué)的心理學(xué)家Eva Klohnen2005年對(duì)新婚夫妻做的研究中所發(fā)現(xiàn)的。這些特點(diǎn)非常明顯、而且也會(huì)很容易被別人發(fā)現(xiàn)，這在最初的吸引中發(fā)揮了作用。
而對(duì)那些老夫老妻，研究人員發(fā)現(xiàn)，那些需要更長(zhǎng)時(shí)間才能發(fā)現(xiàn)的人格特征上相似性，更有影響。
喜劇也對(duì)經(jīng)營(yíng)一段關(guān)系有幫助。不過(guò)幽默感的重要性對(duì)男人和女人不太一樣，麥克馬斯特大學(xué)的Eric Bressler說(shuō)。2005年，他的一項(xiàng)研究，發(fā)現(xiàn)女人會(huì)被那些能讓讓她笑的男人吸引。而男人則喜歡那些會(huì)被他的笑話逗笑的女人。
真愛(ài)？
不論是吸引還是性愛(ài)，我們都希望是源于濃濃愛(ài)意。不過(guò)到底是那個(gè)動(dòng)機(jī)最終促使我們行動(dòng)呢？
有趣的是，對(duì)那些才墜入愛(ài)河的人進(jìn)行的腦部掃描發(fā)現(xiàn)，和愛(ài)有關(guān)的活動(dòng)比和性有關(guān)的更多。"浪漫的愛(ài)情是在人類所有的體驗(yàn)中最強(qiáng)烈的一種。"羅特格斯大學(xué)的人類學(xué)家Helen Fisher說(shuō)，"它絕對(duì)比性沖動(dòng)要強(qiáng)烈得多。"
我們可以列出一長(zhǎng)串的吸引法則。沒(méi)有人知道哪個(gè)更為重要。不過(guò)名列前茅的應(yīng)該是那些尋找完美伴侶時(shí)所提出的要求。
不論區(qū)別多大，男人和女人都對(duì)一項(xiàng)品質(zhì)很重視：忠誠(chéng)。
康奈爾大學(xué)的Stephen Emlen和同事們采訪了近1000名18-24歲的年輕人，讓他們對(duì)一些特征的吸引程度打分，這些特征包括了身體的吸引力，健康，社會(huì)地位，工作野心，忠誠(chéng)度等。
人們對(duì)長(zhǎng)期伴侶的要求比暫時(shí)的伴侶要求更具體，僅次于忠誠(chéng)的特征包括身體吸引、對(duì)家庭的承諾、財(cái)產(chǎn)和地位。
"能當(dāng)個(gè)好父母、奉獻(xiàn)精神、性方面的忠誠(chéng)，這些是人們?cè)趯ひ掗L(zhǎng)期伴侶時(shí)看重的東西"
